Empire, Expansion and the Struggle for Freedom

The sociologist from Oklahoma, S. F. Sibley,1 recited long ago that culture could be defined as “…the sum total of what we have, what we think, and what we do.” The material creations, the ideas, philosophies, and the activities, behaviors, and works of a given society are thereby included in Sibley’s comprehensive definition. For our purposes, political culture may be said to contain the political behaviors and beliefs that are acted out by individuals, groups, and institutions within a particular geographic set of boundaries. Such boundaries may define the borders of either a nation, a region, a state (in the U.S.), or a community. In terms of political culture in the United States during the middle of the 19th century and the era related to the Civil War, roughly 1820-1863, the significant elements of political culture included: 1. Nationalism—There was a great drive for westward expansion. Political theory and political leaders supported this movement. The Monroe Doctrine (1823) stated America’s purposes and power in the hemisphere. Manifest Destiny guided economic and political decision-making. New states were added to the young republic (AR, CA, FL, IA, KS, ME, MN, MO, OR, TX, WI, WV). Immigration and internal migration fueled western settlement and together with local, state, and national political and military actions, led to the intended and unintended degradation of ancient Native American cultures. Continental control over the vast territory south of the Ohio and west of the Mississippi Rivers was sought by all means and effectively accomplished. 2. Economic Development—The opportunities for agriculture, business, manufacturing, and transportation across the frontiers expanded greatly. The national government supported economic activity through land sales; homesteading; canals; railroads; the establishment of townships and public schools,; the creation of colleges; the improvement of coastal ports; surveying and map-making; the establishment of military outposts and roads; the frequent use of military force to contain or remove those (native, Mexican, or European) thought to be impeding economic progress; the gradual expansion of democratic processes and the common law system; the expansion and refinement of the postal system and communication methods; the gradual development and expansion of a national economy assisted and maintained by American and international lending and overall American monetary policies.2 Individuals and families could refashion and make or remake their respective fortunes. 3. Racism—The oppressive, persistent, and often institutionalized prejudice against the Red, Black, and Brown peoples. Anti-foreigner beliefs, policies, and practices were followed by the states and the national government. Slavery—the practice and trade—had legal protection in large parts of the country for generations. Government insisted upon Indian removal and the creation and frequently harsh and inhumane maintenance of reservations. The government officials were complicit in the cultural cleansing, which took place regarding native American languages and rituals and African beliefs and traditions. Neo-European ideas of community and capitalism were advanced. 4. Religion—The use of biblical injunctions and prophecies to advance and maintain White, European style mores, taboos, and traditions. Christianizing efforts toward Native Americans and aspects of the slave condition were established. Missionary movements and schools became prominent in the West among the tribes. Boarding schools for the cultural and religious “transformation” of native children operated in the East. Protestant zeal in the effort to save the lost souls of the Indian people was significant. Many Calvinists and other religious groups in New England and the Northern states became active abolitionists in the movement to eliminate slavery in America. Catholicism persisted, particularly on the east coast and the upper Midwest, gradually gaining social and political acceptance after much initial persecution. Catholics and Protestants alike often adapted to the beliefs and practices of local cultures, such as the notions of rugged individualism and person responsibility in the new territories and states in the West. Self-help is considered a necessity and a virtue. Mormons escaped persecutions in the East and Midwest to establish a cultural enclave in Utah, exerting political and military power in their region before accepting U.S. national authority and jurisdiction. 5. Ideology, political behaviors and government policies—the development and practice of the political subcultures of individualism, moralism, and traditionalism in the migration patterns and institutional and political/social actions and inactions of citizens and leaders in the movement and settlement of America.3 As political scientist Daniel Elazar has articulated (1966), more of contemporary American political culture may be said to evidence the three primary sub-cultures. These have developed out of the beliefs and behaviors regarding government that groups of people brought with them as they moved to and developed communities in new regions and territories. The “adopted” home fronts of the ever-moving American citizenry incorporated into the politics of new locals and the “old” values, as it were, which the migrants had been comfortable with over many years in the past.4 Thus, the individualist political adherents view government and politics much as they would their economic activity. Everything properly in this view, operates on the basis of exchange. Citizens judge whether and when to be involved in politics on the basis of what they can reasonably expect to get out of it for themselves, their families, and close friends. “What does participating profit me?”, asks the individualist. The individualist wants to get ahead, to advance, to “rise” (to use a Lincolnian term). Material benefits are most preferred—jobs, resources, and security.5 Indirect benefits—aligning with the winning ticket, having a good network of potential political contacts, achieving person esteem or a higher perceived social status—may also come into play. Individualistic states, Elazar has contended, fluctuate in voter turn-out, depending on the practical circumstances and perceived material and/or indirect benefits at stake for the potential voters.